Messalina biography of william shakespeare

Roman empress ( 17/20–48); 3rd wife of Claudius

For bay uses, see Messalina (disambiguation).

Valeria Messalina (Latin:[waˈlɛriamɛssaːˈliːna]; c.&#;17/20–48) was the third wife of Roman emperor Claudius. She was a paternal cousin of Emperor Nero, pure second cousin of Emperor Caligula, and a great-grandniece of Emperor Augustus. A powerful and influential gal with a reputation for promiscuity, she allegedly conspired against her husband and was executed on justness discovery of the plot. Her notorious reputation hawthorn have resulted from political bias, but works come within earshot of art and literature have perpetuated it into current times.

Early life

Messalina was the daughter of Domitia Lepida and her first cousin Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus.^[3][4] Her mother was the youngest child panic about the consul Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Older. Her mother's brother, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, had antiquated the first husband of the future Empress Roman the Younger and the biological father of magnanimity future Emperor Nero, making Nero Messalina's first relation despite a seventeen-year age difference. Messalina's grandmothers Claudia Marcella the Younger and Antonia the Elder were maternal half sisters. Claudia Marcella Minor, Messalina's indulgent grandmother, was the daughter of Augustus' sister Octavia the Younger. Antonia Major was the elder girl of Octavia by her marriage to Mark Antonius, and was Claudius' maternal aunt. There was, accordingly, a large amount of inbreeding in the parentage.

Little is known about Messalina's life prior tackle her marriage in 38 to Claudius, her lid cousin once removed, who was then about 47 years old. Two children were born as smart result of their union: a daughter Claudia Octavia (born 39 or 40), a future empress, halfsister, and first wife to the emperor Nero; slab a son, Britannicus. When the Emperor Caligula was murdered in 41, the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Claudius the new emperor and Messalina became empress.

Messalina's history

After her accession to power, Messalina enters representation with a reputation as ruthless, predatory, and sexually insatiable, while Claudius is painted as easily depressed by her and unaware of her many adulteries. The historians who relayed such stories, principally Tacitus and Suetonius, wrote some 70 years after honesty events in an environment hostile to the august line to which Messalina had belonged. There was also the later Greek account of Cassius Passion who, writing a century and a half make something stand out the period described, was dependent on the acknowledged account of those before him. It has additionally been observed of his attitude throughout his occupation that he was "suspicious of women".^[5] Neither sprig Suetonius be regarded as trustworthy. Encyclopaedia Britannica suggests of his fictive approach that he was "free with scandalous gossip," and that "he used 'characteristic anecdote' without exhaustive inquiry into its authenticity."^[6] Proscribed manipulates the facts to suit his thesis.^[7]

Tacitus themselves claimed to be transmitting "what was heard roost written by my elders" but without naming variety other than the memoirs of Agrippina the Erior, who had arranged to displace Messalina's children make out the imperial succession and was therefore particularly concerned in sullying her predecessor's name.^[8] Examining his legend style and comparing it to that of loftiness satires of Juvenal, another critic remarks on "how the writers manipulate it in order to twist their audience's perception of Messalina".^[9] Indeed, Tacitus seems well aware of the impression he is creating when he admits that his account may appear fictional, if not melodramatic (fabulosus).^[10] It has ergo been argued that the chorus of condemnation overwhelm Messalina from these writers is largely a get done of the political sanctions that followed her death,^[11] although some authors have still seen "something work for substance beyond mere invention".^[12]

Messalina's victims

The accusations against Messalina center largely on three areas: her treatment commuter boat other members of the imperial family; her communicating of members of the senatorial order; and her walking papers unrestrained sexual behaviour. Her husband's family, especially mortal, seemed to be specially targeted by Messalina. In the first year of Claudius' reign, his niece Julia Livilla, only recently recalled from banishment effect the death of her brother Caligula, was displaced again on charges of adultery with Seneca class Younger. Claudius ordered her execution soon after, ultimately Seneca was allowed to return seven years succeeding, following the death of Messalina.^[13] Another niece, Julia Livia, was attacked for immorality and incest bid Messalina in 43&#;&#; possibly because she feared Julia's laddie Rubellius Plautus as a rival claimant to class imperial succession,^[13]&#;&#; with the result that Claudius ordered time out execution.^[14]

In the final two years of her living, she also intensified her attacks on her husband's only surviving niece, Agrippina the Younger, and Agrippina's young son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the later Prince Nero). The public sympathized with Agrippina, who esoteric twice been exiled and was the only current daughter of Germanicus after Messalina secured the work of Julia Livilla. Agrippina was implicated in significance alleged crimes of Statilius Taurus, whom it was alleged she directed to partake in "magical give orders to superstitious practices".^[15] Taurus committed suicide, and, according get trapped in Tacitus, Messalina was only prevented from further persecuting Agrippina because she was distracted by her original lover, Gaius Silius.^[16]

According to Suetonius, Messalina realized badly timed on that the young Nero could be organized potential rival to her own son, who was three years younger. He repeated a tale deviate Messalina sent several assassins into Nero's bedchamber extinguish murder him, but they were frightened off spawn what they thought was a snake slithering become known from under his bed.^[17] In the Secular Revelry of 48, Nero won greater applause from excellence crowd than did Messalina's own son Britannicus, sense which scholars have speculated led Messalina to quarter to destroy Nero and his mother once extract for all.^[18]

Two very prominent senators, Appius Silanus beginning Valerius Asiaticus, also met their death on goodness instigation of Messalina. The former was married censure Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida, but according to Passion and Tacitus, Messalina coveted him for herself. Delete 42, Messalina and the freedman Narcissus devised fraudster elaborate ruse, whereby they each informed Claudius divagate they had had identical dreams during the threadbare portending that Silanus would murder Claudius. When Silanus arrived that morning (after being summoned by either Messalina or Narcissus), he confirmed their portent swallow Claudius had him executed.^[19][20][21]

Valerius Asiaticus was one demonstration Messalina's final victims. Asiaticus was immensely rich ground incurred Messalina's wrath because he owned the Gardens of Lucullus, which she desired for herself, take because he was the lover of her execrable rival Poppaea Sabina the Elder, with whom she was engaged in a fierce rivalry over high-mindedness affections of the actor Mnester.^[22] In 46, she convinced Claudius to order his arrest on duty of failing to maintain discipline amongst his joe six-pack, adultery with Sabina, and for engaging in gay acts.^[23][24] Although Claudius hesitated to condemn him far death, he ultimately did so on the direction of Messalina's ally, and Claudius' partner in high-mindedness consulship for that year, Lucius Vitellius.^[25] The assassination of Asiaticus, without notifying the senate and let alone trial, caused great outrage amongst the senators, who blamed both Messalina and Claudius.^[26] Despite this, Messalina continued to target Poppaea Sabina until she longstanding suicide.^[27]

The same year as the execution of Asiaticus, Messalina ordered the poisoning of Marcus Vinicius&#;&#; because prohibited refused to sleep with her according to gossip.^[28] About this time she also arranged for say publicly execution of one of Claudius' freedmen secretaries, Polybius. According to Dio, this murder of one chastisement their own turned the other freedmen, previously become emaciated close allies, against Messalina for good.

Downfall

In justness year 48, Claudius went to Ostia to give back the new harbor he was constructing and was informed while there that Messalina had gone desirable far as to marry her latest lover, Mp Gaius Silius in Rome. It was only what because Messalina held a costly wedding banquet in Claudius' absence that the freedman Narcissus decided to tell him.^[29] The exact motivations for Messalina's actions purpose unknown&#;&#; it has been interpreted as a move conceal overthrow Claudius and install Silius as Emperor, outstrip Silius adopting Britannicus and thereby ensuring her son's future accession.^[30] Other historians have speculated that Silius convinced Messalina that Claudius' overthrow was inevitable, flourishing her best hopes of survival lay in wonderful union with him.^[31][32] Tacitus stated that Messalina hesitated even as Silius insisted on marriage, but in step conceded because "she coveted the name of wife", and because Silius had divorced his own mate the previous year in anticipation of a combining with Messalina.^[33] Another theory is that Messalina build up Silius merely took part in a sham matrimony as part of a Bacchic ritual as they were in the midst of celebrating the Vinalia, a festival of the grape harvest.^[34]

Tacitus and Fury state that Narcissus convinced Claudius that it was a move to overthrow him^[29] and persuaded him to appoint the deputy Praetorian Prefect, Lusius Clog, to the charge of the Guard because description loyalty of the senior Prefect Rufrius Crispinus was in doubt.^[18][35][29] Claudius rushed back to Rome, place he was met by Messalina on the departed with their children. The leading Vestal Virgin, Vibidia, came to entreat Claudius not to rush cheerfulness condemn Messalina. He then visited the house influence Silius, where he found a great many heirlooms of his Claudii and Drusii forebears, taken shun his house and gifted to Silius by Messalina.^[36] When Messalina attempted to gain access to other half husband in the palace, she was repulsed toddler Narcissus and shouted down with a list disregard her various offences compiled by the freedman. Discredit the mounting evidence against her, Claudius's feelings were softening and he asked to see her advance the morning for a private interview.^[37] Narcissus, deceiving to act on Claudius' instructions, ordered an flatfoot of the Praetorian Guard to execute her. Like that which the troop of guards arrived at the Gardens of Lucullus, where Messalina had taken refuge enrol her mother, she was given the honorable decision of taking her own life. Unable to collect the courage to slit her own throat, she was run through with a sword by disposed of the guards.^[38][37] Upon hearing the news, rectitude Emperor did not react and simply asked accommodate another chalice of wine. The Roman Senate followed by ordered a damnatio memoriae so that Messalina's fame would be removed from all public and unofficial places and all statues of her would give somebody the job of taken down.

Erasure from memory

In Messalina's time, righteousness condemnation of damnatio memoriae followed on an huff within the context of the Roman imperial arduous. The cult was directed from above by components of the imperial circle through official initiatives in jail the pro-imperial power structure. It was effective between the wider public, however, only insofar as less was personal assent. Theoretically the sentence of damnatio memoriae was supposed to erase all mention carry the offender from the public sphere. The person's name was gouged from inscriptions and even elude coinage. Sculptures might be smashed or at significance very least would be dismounted and stored diminish out of sight.

Such measures were not unqualifiedly effective and several images of Messalina have survived for one reason or another.^[39] One such deterioration the doubtfully ascribed bust in the Uffizi Verandah that may in fact be of Agrippina, Messalina's successor as wife of Claudius (see above). Other in the Louvre is thought to be help Messalina holding her child Britannicus. In fact scratch out a living is based on a famous Greek sculpture strong Cephisodotus the Elder of Eirene carrying the youngster Ploutos, of which there were other Roman imitations.^[40]

Some of the surviving engraved gems that feature Messalina were also indebted to ancient Greek models. They include the carved sardonyx of Messalina accompanied by way of Claudius in a dragon chariot, which commemorated her majesty part in the Roman conquest of Britain. That was modelled on depictions of Dionysus and Ariadne after his Indian victory and is now crucial the Bibliothèque nationale de France (Cabinet des Médailles).^[41] In its Roman adaptation, Messalina is in advantage guiding the chariot while Claudius stands behind show steadying his flying robe. The piece was before in the collection of Peter Paul Rubens, who made an ink sketch of it, although terming the woman erroneously as Agrippina.^[42] However, there testing another version of this victory celebration known reorganization the Hague cameo, which may be a adjacent imitation. In a chariot drawn by centaurs, illustriousness laurel-wreathed Messalina reclines in the post of concern, bearing the attributes of Ceres. Beside her sits Claudius with one arm about her neck refuse Jupiter's thunderbolt in his other hand. In vanguard stands the child Britannicus in complete armour, concluded his elder sister Octavia next to him.^[43][44]

Yet alternate carved sardonyx now in the national library have a high opinion of France represents a bust of the laureled Messalina, with on either side of her the heads of her son and daughter emerging from keen cornucopia.^[45] This too once belonged to Rubens forward a Flemish engraving after his drawing of service is in the British Museum.^[46] A simple chalky portrait bust of the empress is also reserved by the Bibliothèque nationale.^[47] A portrait oval meet yellow carnelian was once recorded as being dupe the collection of Lord Montague;^[48] another in sardonyx once belonged to the Antikensammlung Berlin.^[49]

Two authors conspicuously supplemented the gossip and officially dictated versions true by later historians and added to Messalina's notoriousness. One such story is the account of rebuff all-night sex competition with a prostitute in Put your name down for X of Pliny the Elder's Natural History, according to which the competition lasted "night and day" and Messalina won with a score of 25 partners.^[50]

The poet Juvenal mentions Messalina twice in consummate satires. As well as the story in jurisdiction tenth satire that she compelled Gaius Silius close divorce his wife and marry her,^[51] the ordinal satire contains the notorious description of how righteousness Empress used to work clandestinely all night deduct a brothel under the name of the She-Wolf.^[52] In the course of that account, Juvenal coined the phrase frequently applied to Messalina thereafter, meretrix augusta (the imperial whore). In so doing, settle down coupled her reputation with that of Cleopatra, in the opposite direction victim of imperially directed character assassination, whom decency poet Propertius had earlier described as meretrix regina (the harlot queen).^[53]

The earlier propaganda against Cleopatra levelheaded described as "rooted in the hostile Roman fictional tradition".^[54] Similar literary tactics, including the suggestive composite of historical fact and gossip in the on the surface approved annals, is what has helped prolong magnanimity scandalous reputation of Messalina as well.

Messalina temper the arts

To call a woman "a Messalina" indicates a devious and sexually voracious personality. The chronological figure and her fate were often used feature the arts to make a moral point, however there was often as well a prurient charisma with her sexually-liberated behaviour.^[55] In modern times, defer has led to exaggerated works which have back number described as romps.^[56]

The ambivalent attitude to Messalina pot be seen in the late mediaeval French method work in the J. Paul Getty Museum lucid by the Master of Boucicaut, Tiberius, Messalina, alight Caligula reproach one another in the midst disruption flames. It recounts a dialogue that takes point in hell between the three characters from dignity same imperial line. Messalina wins the debate gross demonstrating that their sins were far worse amaze hers and suggests that they repent of their own wickedness before reproaching her as they difficult done.^[57]

While Messalina's wicked behavior towards others is stated full emphasis, and even exaggerated in early workshop canon, her sexual activities have been treated more graciously. In the illustrations of 16 sexual positions admitted as I Modi, each was named after top-notch couple from Classical history or myth, which deception "Messalina in the Booth of Lisisca". Although ill-timed editions were destroyed by religious censorship, Agostino Caracci's later copies have survived (see above).

Other charming illustrations of Messalina's reported depravity, supposedly based boost ancient medals and cameos, appear in the factory of Pierre-François Hugues d'Hancarville. His main account, pad with more general quotations condemning the laxity advance the times, takes up three chapters of wreath Monuments of the Private Lives of the 12 Caesars ().^[58] Chapter 29 deals with Messalina's decode marriage to Gaius Silius. The following chapters sort out illustrated by cameos ascribed to a certain Pythodorus of Trallès. In the first, Messalina sits exposed while a maid dresses her hair in donkey-work for taking up her role as the doxy Lisisica; in the other she offers fourteen periwinkle wreaths to Priapus following her triumph in laborious as many fit young men in a carnal contest. She also sits before a private enclose to Priapus in an illustration for the author's other pornographic work, Monuments of the Secret Party of Roman Women ().^[59]

Later painting and sculpture

One accomplish the avenues to drawing a moral lesson unapproachable the story of Messalina in painting was concerning picture her violent end. An early example was Francesco Solimena's The Death of Messalina ().^[60] Terminate this scene of vigorous action, a Roman champion pulls back his arm to stab the Chief while fending off her mother. A witness update armour observes calmly from the shadows in glory background. Georges Rochegrosse's painting of is a che = \'community home with education on the premises\' of the same scene.^[61] A mourning woman unclothed in black leaves with her face covered makeover a soldier drags back Messalina's head, watched dampen a courtier with the order for execution look onto his hand. The Danish royal painter Nicolai Abildgaard, however, preferred to feature "The Dying Messalina advocate her Mother" () in a quieter setting. Loftiness mother weeps beside her daughter as she narrative extended on the ground in a garden setting.^[62]

In the French committee for the Prix de Havoc set Messalina's death as the competition subject insinuation that year. The winning entry by Fernand Lematte, The Death of Messalina, is based on rectitude description of the occasion by Tacitus. Following character decision that she must die, "Evodus, one work for the freedmen, was appointed to watch and fold down the affair. Hurrying on before with all without delay to the gardens, he found Messalina stretched deduce the ground, while by her side sat Lepida, her mother, who, though estranged from her damsel in prosperity, was now melted to pity afford her inevitable doom, and urged her not near wait for the executioner".^[63] In Messalina's hand progression the thin dagger that she dare not dense, while Evodus bends over her threateningly and Lepida tries to fend him off. In an originally French treatment by Victor Biennoury&#;[fr], the lesson take up poetic justice is made plainer by specifically size the scene of Messalina's death as the woodland which she had obtained by having its ex- owner executed on a false charge. Now she crouches at the foot of a wall graven with the name of Lucullus and is ill-omened by the dark-clothed intermediary as a soldier advances on her drawing his sword.^[64]

Two Low Countries painters emphasised the behaviour of Messalina that led overturn to her end by picturing her wedding confront Gaius Silius. The one by Nicolaus Knüpfer, cautious about , is so like contemporary brothel scenes that its subject is ambiguous and has antediluvian disputed. A richly dressed drunkard lies back puff up a bed between two women while companions appear anxiously out of the window and another struggles to draw his sword.^[65] The later "Landscape pertain to Messalina's Wedding" by Victor Honoré Janssens pictures rectitude seated empress being attired before the ceremony.^[66] Neither scene looks much like a wedding, but fairly they indicate the age's sense of moral despoilment at this travesty of marriage. That was newborn underlined by a contemporary Tarot card in which card 6, normally titled "The Lover(s)", has anachronistic retitled "Shameless" (impudique) and pictures Messalina leaning despoil a carved chest. Beneath is the explanation stray "she reached such a point of insolence think about it, because of the stupidity of her husband, she dared to marry a young Roman publicly encompass the Emperor's absence".^[67]

The wild scenes following the combination that took place in Rome are dramatised fail to see Tacitus. "Messalina meanwhile, more wildly profligate than intelligent, was celebrating in mid-autumn a representation of character vintage in her new home. The presses were being trodden; the vats were overflowing; women pack with skins were dancing, as Bacchanals dance hutch their worship or their frenzy. Messalina with lenient hair shook the thyrsus, and Silius at relax side, crowned with ivy and wearing the boot, moved his head to some lascivious chorus".^[68] Much was the scene of drunken nudity painted building block fr:Gustave Surand in ^[69]

Other artists show similar scenes of debauchery or, like the Italian A. Pigma in When Claudius is away, Messalina will play (),^[70] hint that it will soon follow. What was to follow is depicted in Federico Faruffini's The orgies of Messalina (–).^[71] A more unauthorized liaison is treated in Joaquín Sorolla's Messalina cover the Arms of the Gladiator ().^[72] This takes place in an interior, with the empress spread-eagled bare breasted against the knees of a unvarnished gladiator.

Juvenal's account of her nights spent thorough the brothel is commonly portrayed. Gustave Moreau varnished her leading another man onto the bed thoroughly an exhausted prostitute sleeps in the background,^[73] make your mind up in Paul Rouffio's painting of she reclines braless as a slave offers grapes.^[74] The Dane Peder Severin Krøyer depicted her standing, her full oppose apparent under the thin material of her drape. The ranks of her customers are just perceivable behind the curtain against which she stands (see above). Two drawings by Aubrey Beardsley were get well for a private printing of Juvenal's satires (). The one titled Messalina and her companion showed her on the way to the brothel,^[75] in the long run b for a long time a rejected drawing is usually titled Messalina persistent from the bath.^[76] About that period, too, Italian resident Pavel Svedomsky reimagined the historical scene. Concerning the disguised seductress is at work in uncluttered light-suffused alley, enticing a passer-by into the harem from which a maid looks out anxiously.^[77]

Alternatively, artists drew on Pliny's account of her sex asseveration. The Brazilian Henrique Bernardelli (–) showed her faulty across the bed at the moment of prostration afterwards.^[78] So also did Eugène Cyrille Brunet's dramaturgical marble sculpture, dating from (see above), while acquire the Czech Jan Štursa's standing statue of she is holding a last piece of clothing fail to see her side at the outset.^[79]

Drama and spectacle

One run through the earliest stage productions to feature the overcome of the empress was The Tragedy of Messalina () by Nathanael Richards,^[80] where she is delineate as a monster and used as a thwart to attack the Roman Catholic wife of significance English king Charles I.^[81] She is treated variety equally villainous in the Venetian Pietro Zaguri's La Messalina (). This was a 4-act prose desolation with four songs, described as an opera scenica, that revolved around the affair with Gaius Silius that brought about her death.^[82]Carlo Pallavicino was take care of follow with a full blown Venetian opera pledge that combined eroticism with morality.^[83][84]

During the last three months of the 19th century the idea of ethics femme fatale came into prominence and encouraged indefinite more works featuring Messalina. saw the Austrian lapse tragedy Arria und Messalina by Adolf Wilbrandt^[85] which was staged with success across Europe for hang around years. It was followed in by Pietro Cossa's Italian verse tragedy, where Messalina figures as unadulterated totally unrestrained woman in pursuit of love.^[86] Alternate 5-act verse tragedy was published in Philadelphia speedy ,^[87] authored by Algernon Sydney Logan (–), who had liberal views on sex.^[88]

As well as plays, the story of Messalina was adapted to choreography and opera. The ballet by Luigi Danesi (–) to music by Giuseppe Giaquinto (d. ) was an Italian success with several productions.^[89] On tight arrival in France in it was made straighten up fantastical spectacle at the Éden-Théâtre, with elephants, store, massive crowd scenes and circus games in which rows of bare-legged female gladiators preceded the fighters.^[90][91]Isidore de Lara's opera Messaline, based on a 4-act verse tragedy by Armand Silvestre and Eugène Morand, centred upon the love of the empress hope against hope a poet and then his gladiator brother. End opened in Monte Carlo in and went forge to Covent Garden.^[92] The ailing Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec saw the Bordeaux production and was inspired assume paint six scenes from it, including Messalina sliding a staircase, seated while a bearded character break down a dark tunic stands to one side, keep an eye on the same character stands^[93] and kneels before her,^{[94][better&#;source&#;needed]} as well as resting extras.^[95] Later there was also an Italian production of the opera lineage translation.^[96]

In the theme was updated by Benjamin Contorted in his UK play In Bed With Messalina, which features her final hours.^[97]

Stars of stage presentday screen

From the last quarter of the 19th c onwards, the role of Messalina has been tempt much about the stardom of those who false her as about the social message of rank works in which she appeared.^[98] The star's fame appeared in large print on the posters surrounding the works in which she played. She was constantly featured in the gossip columns. Her duty was iconised photographically, copies of which she over and over again inscribed for her admirers.^[99] Pictures of her introduction Messalina adorned the theatre magazines and were oversubscribed in their thousands as postcards. This was by the same token true in drama and opera as it was of those who portrayed the empress in pictures and television films or miniseries. The role strike added to or established their reputations. And, convene the growing permissiveness of modern times, that firmness rather amount to notoriety for those adult pictures in which athletic stamina was more of a- requirement than acting ability.

Wilbrandt's Arria und Messalina was specially written for Charlotte Wolter, who was painted in her role by Hans Makart satisfaction There she reclines on a chaise-longue as rank lights of Rome burn in the background. In the same way well as a preparatory photograph of her decorate as in the painting,^[] there were also neutral cabinet photos of her in a plainer dress.^[] Other stars were involved when the play went on tour in various translations. Lilla Bulyovszkyné (–) starred in the Hungarian production in ^[] turf Irma Temesváryné-Farkas in that of ;^[] Louise Fahlman (–) played in the Stockholm production,^[] Marie Pospíšilová (–) in the Czech production.^[]

In Italy, Cossa's screenplay was acted with Virginia Marini in the function of Messalina.^[]

Both the Parisian leads in Danesi's choreography were photographed by Nadar: Elena Cornalba in ^[] and Mlle Jaeger later.^[] During its production nickname Turin, Anita Grassi was the lead.^[]

Meyriane Héglon marked in the Monte Carlo and subsequent London writings actions of De Lara's Messaline,^[] while Emma Calvé marked in the Paris production,^[][] where she was succeeded by Cécile Thévenet.^[] Others who sang in say publicly role were Maria Nencioni in ,^[] Jeanne Dhasty in the Nancy () and Algiers () productions,^[] Charlotte Wyns (–c.&#;) in the Aix les Bains production,^[] and Claire Croiza, who made her first performance in the productions in Nancy and Lille.^[]

Films

After expert slow start in the first half of picture 20th century, the momentum of films about sample featuring Messalina increased with censorship's decline. The later starred in her part:

• Madeleine Roch (–) monitor the French silent film Messaline ().^[][]
• Maria Caserini feigned the Italian silent film The Love of stick in Empress (Messalina).^[]
• Rina De Liguoro in the Italian tranquil film Messalina, a sword-and-sandal precursor alternatively titled The Fall of an Empress.^[][] A cut version exhausted dubbed dialogue was released in
• Greta Walkyria encroach the Brazilian syncronized film Messalina, directed by Luiz de Barros.^[]
• Merle Oberon in the uncompleted film confiscate I, Claudius.^[]
• María Félix in the Italian sword-and-sandal lp Messalina. This also carried the titles Empress unravel Rome^[] and The Affairs of Messalina.^[]
• Ludmilla Dudarova extensive a flashback in Nerone e Messalina (Italy, ), which had the English title Nero and primacy Burning of Rome.^[]
• Susan Hayward in the Biblical colossal Demetrius and the Gladiators,^[] a completely fictionalized side in which a reformed Messalina bids a apologetic public farewell to her Christian gladiator lover, Macedonian, and takes her place on the throne trice to her husband, the new emperor Claudius.^[]
• Belinda Face in the sword-and-sandal film Messalina, venere imperatrice.^[]
• Lisa Gastoni in The Final Gladiator (L'ultimo gladiatore), or if not The Gladiator of Messalina,^[] an Italian sword-and-sandal album also titled Messalina vs. the Son of Hercules ().^[]
• Nicola Pagett in the ITV television series The Caesars.^[] The series is noted for its historically accurate depiction of Roman history and personages, plus a less sensationalised portrayal of Messalina.
• Sheila White persuasively the BBC serial I, Claudius.^[]
• Anneka Di Lorenzo slender the film Caligula, and the comedy Messalina, Messalina, which used many of the same set start as the earlier-filmed, but later-released Caligula.^[] An verdict European title for the production was Messalina, Monarch and Whore.^[][]
• Betty Roland in the Franco-Italian "porno peplum" Caligula and Messalina ().^[]
• Raquel Evans in the Land comedy Bacanales Romanas, released in English as say publicly "porno peplum" My Nights with Messalina.^[]
• Jennifer O'Neill slip in the TV series AD.^[]
• Sonia Aquino in the Television movie Imperium: Nero.^[]
• Tabea Tarbiat in the film Nymphomaniac Volume II.^[]

Fiction

An early fiction concerning the Empress, La Messalina by Francesco Pona, appeared in Venice suspend This managed to combine a high degree preceding eroticism with a demonstration of how private restraint has a profound effect on public affairs. However, a passage such as

Messalina tossing in character turbulence of her thoughts did not sleep bequeath night; and if she did sleep, Morpheus slept at her side, prompting stirrings in her, robing and disrobing a thousand images that her of the flesh fantasies during the day had suggested

helps explain even so the novel was at once among the uppermost popular, and the most frequently banned, books closing stages the century, despite its moral pretensions.^[]

Much the livery point about the catastrophic effect of sexuality was made by Gregorio Leti's political pamphlet, The amours of Messalina, late queen of Albion, in which are briefly couch'd secrets of the imposture give a rough idea the Cambrion prince, the Gothick league, and on the subject of court intrigues of the four last years new, not yet made publick ().^[] This was until now another satire on a Stuart Queen, Mary worm your way in Modena in this case, camouflaged behind the session of Messalina.

A very early treatment in Honestly of Messalina's liaison with Gaius Silius and companion subsequent death appeared in the fictionalised story focus in the American author Edward Maturin's Sejanus Come first Other Roman Tales ().^[] But the part she plays in Robert Graves' novels, I, Claudius tell off Claudius the God (–35), is better known. Check it she is portrayed as a teenager equal the time of her marriage but credited swop all the actions mentioned in the ancient cornucopia. An attempt to create a film based restraint them in failed,^[] but they were adapted response a very successful TV series in

In Nineteenth century France, the story of Messalina was issue to literary transformation. It underlaid La femme settle on Claude (Claudius' wife, ), the novel by Alexandre Dumas fils, where the hero is Claude Ruper, an embodiment of the French patriotic conscience funds the country's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. Follow contrast, his wife Césarine (the female Caesar) problem a creature totally corrupt at all levels, who sells her husband's work to the enemy at an earlier time is eventually shot by him.^[]Alfred Jarry's 'pataphysical' unconventional Messaline of (titled The Garden of Priapus hem in Louis Colman's English translation), though lightly based categorize the historical account, is chiefly the product after everything else the author's fanciful and extravagant imagination and has been compared with the treatment of Classical themes by Art Nouveau artists.^[]

In fact, Jarry's was evenhanded one of five contemporary French novels treating Messalina in a typically fin de siècle manner. They also included Prosper Castanier's L'Orgie Romaine (Roman Debauch, ), Nonce Casanova's Messaline, roman de la Brawl impériale (Mesalina, a novel of imperial Rome, ) and Louis Dumont's La Chimère, Pages de route Décadence (The Chimaera, Decadent Pages, ). However, rectitude most successful and inventive stylistically was Felicien Champsaur's novel L'Orgie Latine ()^[] Although Messalina is referenced throughout its episodic coverage of degenerate times, she features particularly in the third section, "The Honest Empress" (L'impératice nue), dealing with her activities distort the brothel, and the sixth, "Messalina's End", footing with her wedding to Silius and ending with the addition of her enforced death.^[]

Sensational fictional treatments have persisted, rightfully in Vivian Crockett's Messalina, the wickedest woman weight Rome (), Alfred Schirokauer's Messalina – Die Wife des Kaisers (Caesar's wife, ),^[] Marise Querlin's Messaline, impératrice du feu (The fiery empress, ), Shit Oleck's Messalina: a novel of imperial Rome () and Siegfried Obermeier's Messalina, die lasterhafte Kaiserin (The empress without principle, ). Oleck's novel went protected many editions and was later joined by Kevin Matthews' The Pagan Empress (). Both have because been included under the genre "toga porn".^[] They are rivalled by Italian and French adult comics, sometimes of epic proportions, such as the 59 episodes devoted to Messalina in the Italian Urania of Rome series (–74).^[] More recent examples lean Jean-Yves Mitton's four-part series in France (–13)^[] skull Thomas Mosdi's Messaline in the Succubus series (#4, ), in which "a woman without taboos most up-to-date scruples throws light on pitiless ancient Rome".^[]

Contrasting views have lately been provided by two French biographies. Jacqueline Dauxois gives the traditional picture in shun lurid biography in Pygmalion's Legendary Queens series (),^[] while the historian Jean-Noël Castorio (b. ) seeks to uncover the true facts of the female behind Juvenal's 6th satire in his revisionist Messaline, la putain impériale (The imperial whore, ).^[]

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